Card management providers
Marqeta
Paymentology
Stripe (they provide cards too)
The chip on the card has an embedded operating system in it.
For Visa, its called VSDC application
For mastercard, its called MChip application
Card manufacturer is responsible for putting up the OS and personalization data into it.
Issuer gets the card design approved by the Scheme and then provide the approved card designs to the Card Management provider